An Overview of the Branches of Philosophy essays

An Overview of the Branches of Philosophy essays Generally speaking, philosophy the critical examination of the grounds for fundamental beliefs and an analysis of the basic concepts employed in the expression of such beliefs. Philosophical inquiry is a central element in the intellectual history of many historical civilizations. The word is from the Greek (by way of Latin, philosophia) and means "love of wisdom" (Martinich provides a brief definition and description of three approaches to philosophical investigation: metaphysics, epistemology, and axiology (including its two branches, aesthetics and ethics). Metaphysics. This branch of philosophy deals with the ultimate nature of human existence, largely as an extension of the Metaphysics of Aristotle. This collection of treatises placed after the Physics [Gr. metaphysics =after physics ] treated what Aristotle termed the First Philosophy. The primary focus of metaphysical speculation is termed "ontology," which is the study of the ultimate nature of being; however, philosophical theology and cosmology are typically considered branches of metaphysics as well (Metaphysics 2000). This branch of philosophy leaves nothing unquestioned and proceeds entirely without assumptions; according to Walsh (1963), "The only propositions with which a metaphysician could properly be content were propositions whose truth could not be denied, or whose truth was seen to be involved in their own attempted denial" (11). Epistemology. This field of philosophy is defined as the study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge. The term comes from the Greek episteme ("knowledge") and logos ("reason"), and accordingly the field is sometimes called the theory of knowledge (Martinich Axiology. This branch of philosophy is concerned with "values" and "what is good" (Morris 1961:219). "If axiological issues underlie ethical ...

Free Essays on T.S. Eliot

T. S. Eliot is, to many, just another name heard, but never truly known about. For a select few, he is considered one of the most influential writers of the twentieth century and â€Å"the† modernist poet and critic of all time. T. S. Eliot had a few select influences in his life that helped him and pushed him to write both his poems and his plays. Thomas Sterns Eliot had a few major influences in his life. T. S. Eliot was born in Missouri. Living in St. Louis for eighteen years of his life. He also attended Harvard while he was here. He moved to Sorbornne, having already earned both undergraduate and masters degrees. He left Paris after a year and returned to Harvard to get a doctorate in philosophy, but then left again in 1914 back to Europe where he settled in England. In 1915 he married Vivienne Haigh-Wood. He also met Ezra Pound, one of the few major influences in his life. When Pound saw some of his writings she immediately knew that he had talent. She helped in his publishing on his very first book of poems, which include â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock†. His new wife cheated on him for a short period, and she got continually worse physically and emotionally. Eliot continued to struggle to support himself and his wife’s deteriorating condition. In 1919, Eliot’s father died, lea ving Eliot without the chance to make right past conflicts about his marriage to Vivienne. In 1921 Eliot had a nervous breakdown and took physicians advice to take three months off for rest. During this three months, Eliot completed a poem he had been working on since 1919. Scofield Thayer, a friend from his Harvard days, had by this time become the editor of Dial, a magazine of the time. Thayer awarded Eliot with the annual prize that the magazine gave of two thousand dollars and to have an essay written by one of the more influential writers of the magazine, Edmund Wilson. In 1923, Vivienne nearly died, which drove Eliot a... Free Essays on T.S. Eliot Free Essays on T.S. Eliot T. S. Eliot is, to many, just another name heard, but never truly known about. For a select few, he is considered one of the most influential writers of the twentieth century and â€Å"the† modernist poet and critic of all time. T. S. Eliot had a few select influences in his life that helped him and pushed him to write both his poems and his plays. Thomas Sterns Eliot had a few major influences in his life. T. S. Eliot was born in Missouri. Living in St. Louis for eighteen years of his life. He also attended Harvard while he was here. He moved to Sorbornne, having already earned both undergraduate and masters degrees. He left Paris after a year and returned to Harvard to get a doctorate in philosophy, but then left again in 1914 back to Europe where he settled in England. In 1915 he married Vivienne Haigh-Wood. He also met Ezra Pound, one of the few major influences in his life. When Pound saw some of his writings she immediately knew that he had talent. She helped in his publishing on his very first book of poems, which include â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock†. His new wife cheated on him for a short period, and she got continually worse physically and emotionally. Eliot continued to struggle to support himself and his wife’s deteriorating condition. In 1919, Eliot’s father died, lea ving Eliot without the chance to make right past conflicts about his marriage to Vivienne. In 1921 Eliot had a nervous breakdown and took physicians advice to take three months off for rest. During this three months, Eliot completed a poem he had been working on since 1919. Scofield Thayer, a friend from his Harvard days, had by this time become the editor of Dial, a magazine of the time. Thayer awarded Eliot with the annual prize that the magazine gave of two thousand dollars and to have an essay written by one of the more influential writers of the magazine, Edmund Wilson. In 1923, Vivienne nearly died, which drove Eliot a...

Irish Historiography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Irish Historiography - Essay Example The Irish Potato Famine and Revolution comprise the twin pillars of the Irish nationalism's post-1923 ideal of the Republic. The two disparate events were celebrated, recalled and made into mythology for very different reasons. The Great Hunger was seen, within nationalist circles, as a largely avoidable food crisis, precipitated and subsequently exacerbated by British ineptitude and an attitude that saw the Irish as expendable quasi-citizens. The Revolution, on the other hand, was portrayed as a glorious event which successfully liberated an oppressed people, while making heroes and martyrs of men such as Michael Collins who, "in a span of six short years brought a country from bondage to a position where she could win her freedom." (Conlon & Barter, 2003, p.20). Both events would likewise serve as the twin axis upon which revisionism was to flourish - the backlash against nationalism both from within and outside of Eire. Fuelled by frustrated patriotism and the deep-rooted influence of the Irish Diaspora in the New World, post-Famine Irish Nationalism espoused an interpretive view of history which conflicted with reality. Furthermore, the practice of history in Ireland has traditionally been merged with oral tales of the past, endowing Irish historiography with a romanticised view of the real life narratives which inspired it. The combination of these two external factors produced a history that was, following the mid-nineteenth century, a potent mix of literature, folklore and propaganda with the result that fact often made way for a more apt form of fiction, unchallenged until the advent of revisionism after 1930. As expressed by R.F. Foster, "rather like generals always fighting the previous battle, cultural revolutionaries rarely get the revolution they expected" (Foster, 2001, p.20). Inspired by romantic writers such as Yeats, turn of the century Irish historians were highly critical of the British Government's sluggish relief tactics in response to the failure of the potato crops in 1845. 'Famine' was renamed 'starvation', with emphasis on the allegedly deliberate nature of the event, and it was taught in republican schools as the only correct version of events. Moreover, nationalist academic research appeared to prove the most damning charge levelled against the British, namely that there was indeed large food stocks available in England and withheld from the starving Irish. The selective use of primary sources determined that revisionist theory, following its emergence in the 1930's, be more concerned with evaluating all of the source material, rather than concentrating only on those facts that underpinned the nationalist republican political ideology. Throughout the dissection of modern Irish history, even after the 1930's, voices that dared to question the v alidity of the term 'starvation' were denounced as traitors or British sympathisers. Indeed, for many years, only those historians who shared the Nationalist viewpoint would receive patronage for their work: this was the historical compromise that mirrored the North/South, Protestant/Catholic divide in Ireland during the twentieth century. Apart from a

Critical awareness of approaches to current business research on a Essay

Critical awareness of approaches to current business research on a paper that looks at the effect that the alignment of business strategy and characteristics of - Essay Example The first limiter is the use of looking at the characteristics in the scope of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) and the second limiter comes from the examination of examples coming from Spain. Additionally, the study also proposes at the outset that the three points under examination would turn out to be complimentary (Entrialgo, 2002). The value of the study is greatly helped by the evidence given regarding the previous literature which shows that a study of this exact nature is not there in our present body of knowledge. The examples of previous studies given in the paper are quite useful since they do two things which add to the overall credibility of the article. First of all, the examination of previous research shows that there is a large body of material which deals with the relationship between the influence of individual managers and the results gained by an organization. The research done by Gupta and Govindarajan (1984), Miller, de Vries and Toulouse (1982) as well as the paper published by Sturdivant, Ginter and Sawer (1985) serve to establish this as a primary fact (Entrialgo, 2002). Additionally, other research work such as the papers published by Kerr (1982) and Child (1974) show that there are certain links which can be established between the characteristics of a manager and the strategic direction a company takes under the management of that individual. However, the article under discussion is clear on the point that in the opinion of the writer, the two areas can be combined since they are complimentary to each other and can work together as one unit for subjective analysis (Entrialgo, 2002). While the literature review taken by the author is sufficiently extensive and broad ranging it does seem to be limited to rather older information which had been published some time ago. In fact, the latest year used by the writer as a source for the references seems to be 2000.

The Automatic Stabilizer Essay Example for Free

The Automatic Stabilizer Essay In macroeconomics an automatic stabilizer refers to any economic program or policy that automatically increases or decreases to counteract or stabilize the present economic trend without the need for governmental assistance (â€Å"Automatic Stabilizer,† 2007). Auerbach Feenberg (2000) describe automatic stabilizers as â€Å"elements of fiscal policy† that moderate fluctuations in aggregate output. From the Keynesian viewpoint, automatic stabilizers may include those constituents of the government budget that increase government spending and reduce taxes during a recession, and do exactly the opposite during a boom (Auerbach Feenberg). Automatic stabilizers are precipitated by shocks that cause the aggregate economic activity to either increase or decrease (Auerbach Feenberg). As an example, there are certain kinds of taxes, e. g. the progressive tax, that â€Å"rise more than proportionately† to offset increases in income (Automatic Stabilizers). If these taxes did not exist, the government would have to take action against increases in income so as to prevent the inflation rate from rising in the near future. But, if the government had to take action to raise taxes in that event, it would first have to determine that income has, indeed, risen, before it would pass a law and wait for the law to go into effect. This could be a rather time-consuming process. Moreover, by the time the new law is ready to have an effect on the economy, the economic trend may have reversed (Automatic Stabilizers). Automatic stabilizers tend to help the economy regardless of whether it is experiencing or bound to experience a boom or slump. When income decreases, the economy may ultimately hit a recession. However, â€Å"[u]nemployment compensation and income supplements† for the poor may come to the rescue before the government decides to take action against the drop in income (Automatic Stabilizers). As the income drops, there are more people that are eligible for â€Å"[u]nemployment compensation and income supplements (Automatic Stabilizers). Hence, the economy may be saved from experiencing a downturn through these automatic stabilizers. Auerbach Feenberg have estimated that the payroll and income taxes in the United States have the power to offset approximately eight percent of an initial shock to the Gross Domestic Product. However, the impact of these taxes was higher during late 70s and early 80s because of high inflation. Of course, tax rates have an effect on the power of these automatic stabilizers. According to the authors, however, â€Å"the effectiveness of an automatic stabilizer depends not only on how much of an increase in disposable income it produces, but also how large a private response in consumption this increase in disposable income generates (Auerbach Feenberg). † This is because the spending of households with different levels of income is expected to differ even as the automatic stabilizers are at work (Auerbach Feenberg). Undoubtedly, the effectiveness of automatic stabilizers differs among nations with different levels of income inequality. Moreover, countries differ in their tax rates and the design of their income supplements. Therefore, automatic stabilizers are expected to have differing impacts across countries. Regardless of their impacts, however, automatic stabilizers are very helpful for the economics in which they are at work (Automatic Stabilizers). Lastly, by estimating the impacts of various automatic stabilizers, governments may design programs and policies, that is, automatic stabilizers, that would counteract shocks more effectively in the future. Methods of reducing income inequality are also expected to alter the effectiveness of the automatic stabilizers.

Film Versions of Shakespeare Comedies Essay example -- Twelfth Night M

Film Versions of Shakespeare Comedies Shakespearean plays are complex, intricate pieces of work in which a diverse range of interpretations and readings can be made. This is particularly true of his comedies, where the light-hearted humour is often offset by darker, more serious undertones. In adapting these comedies it is for the director – in the cinematic context – to decide how to interpret the play and which elements are privileged and which are suppressed. This variance in interpretation is exemplified in comparing two of the more recent cinematic adaptations of Shakespeare’s comedies, Trevor Nunn’s Twelfth Night and Kenneth Branagh’s A Much Ado About Nothing [‘Much Ado’]. Although both films can to an extent be seen as comedies with serious, almost tragic aspects inherent throughout, Nunn’s film deals with these serious facets as central to the depiction, whereas Branagh, although not entirely ignoring the deeper issues, prefers a more light-hearted and visual ly attractive adaptation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Twelfth Night has been described as ‘like Hamlet in a comic vein’ . In terms of Shakespearean chronology, the bittersweet edge to the play and the fact that it is essentially a comedy with the dark, sometimes disturbing elements, has been linked with the playwright’s movement toward the genre of tragedy. The range of filmic adaptations of the play illustrates the variation in the interpretation of Shakespeare’s work, with the dark edge often failing to make the transition to screen. However this is not the case with Nunn’s Twelfth Night, which achieves this exploration of the serious essentially through his interpretation of some of the play’s principal characters including Malvolio, Feste and Maria. Malvolio's character is significant to Nunn’s adaptation in many respects with it initially appearing that Malvolio brings an air of respectability and chastity to the film. However his essential flaws and his inability to recognise the reality of people's feelings, including Olivia's, remove him from the position of moral overseer to a simple player in the game of love. Malvolio's error is related to his self-perceptions and his consideration of his own self-importance, rather than his caring and compassion for his mistress Olivia. Malvolio’s function in this film is to serve as a comedic contrast to the merry-makers, as well as a vital reminder to Feste t... ... provides glimpses of these issues, yet valorises a light-hearted, aesthetic approach to the text as a whole. Works Cited: Brode Douglas. Shakespeare in the Movies: From the Silent Era to Shakespeare in Love. Oxford University Press, 2000, pp. 97-99. Cartmell, B. Interpreting Shakespeare on Screen. (2000). Cuppit, C. â€Å"Double Trouble: A Discussion of Trevor Nunn’s film adaptation of Twelfth Night.† Fine Line Features. Twelfth Night. Home Page. 2003 http://www.finelinefeatures.com/twelfth/ Accessed 28/5/03 Fine Line Features. â€Å"Trevor Nunn – Director.† About the Filmmakers. 2003 http://www.finelinefeatures.com/twelfth/filmbios.htm Greif, K â€Å"Plays ad Playing in Twelfth Night†, in Modern Critical Interpretations: William Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night, ed. Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, (1987). Marshall, K. â€Å"How do you solve a problem like Maria?: A Problematic (re)interpretation of Maria in Trevor Nunn’s Twelfth Night.† Literature-Film Quarterly 30, no. 3 (2002): p. 219. Richard, R. â€Å"Much Ado About Branagh†. Commentary 96(4) (1993) Sheppard, P. â€Å"Intercutting in Trevor Nunn’s Twelfth Night†. Literature Film Quarterly 30, No. 3 (2002)

Delegation is the assignment Essay

Delegation is the assignment of responsibility or authority to another person (normally from a manager to a subordinate) to carry out specific activities. It is one of the core concepts of management leadership. However, the person who delegated the work remains accountable for the outcome of the delegated work. Delegation empowers a subordinate to make decisions, i.e. it is a shift of decision-making authority from one organizational level to a lower one. delegation is good and can save money and time, help in building skills, and motivate people. Poor delegation, on the other hand, might cause frustration and confusion to all the involved parties. Some agents however do not favour a delegation and consider the power of making a decision rather burdensome. Delegation is about entrusting someone else to do parts of your job A manager alone cannot perform all the tasks assigned to him. In order to meet the targets, the manager should delegate authority managers could greatly reduce their stress by practicing a critical management skill – delegation. Delegation is one of the most important management skills. Good delegation saves the time, develops the subordinates, fosters a successor and motivates. Poor delegation will cause frustration, de-motivation and failures to achieve the task or purpose. Although it is easy to recognize the benefits that accrue from delegation, many managers still resist actually doing it The most important step for delegation is to recognize the common barriers to delegation. These barriers can come from supervisors (leaders), the team members, or the situation. 1. Barriers Related to Supervisor The biggest barrier to effective delegation often comes from supervisors. They must overcome their anxieties about giving others responsibilities in order to gain the benefits of effective delegation. In general, 6 barriers are related with the Barriers to delegation of authority from subordinate side would mean, the difficulties or problems faced by subordinate in accepting and using the authority delegated. These barriers include the following. †¢Authority delegated in theory, but means of exercising the authority not made available. For example, a subordinate may be delegated the authority to buy computer required in his department, but the purchase department drags feet  on actually buying the computer. The worst case of this type may happen when, for example, a project manager is given considerable authority for executing a project, but the project itself is not sanctioned. †¢The subordinate may not have authority over some of the people who must contribute to implementation of decisions made. †¢Required information for making decision may not be available. Many a times other supporting facilities like staff and office space may also be inadequate. †¢The subordinate may be already overburdened wit h work. †¢When a subordinate id delegated authority which elevates his position above those equal or senior to him this may be resented by them. †¢Subordinate may lack the skill and knowledge for effective decision making. †¢Limits of authority delegated not defined clearly. Generally delegation of authority with supposedly no limits is not very effective. †¢The subordinate has no motivation for accepting the additional responsibility that goes with the authority. †¢Authority delegated without matching responsibilities. This can make delegation directionless for the subordinate.

Snowboarding History

As the excitement of fall winds down, many people fall into a depression. The leaves are gone, the woods are desolate, and the chill of winter air has crept upon us. While most people find this sad, I find it exciting! Why? Because it is time for my favorite sport, snowboarding. Snowboarding’s a new, challenging sport that’s attracting new fans from all around the world. It has really changed since it was first invented. It’s become one of the largest and fastest growing sports in the world. Everywhere, people, including myself, are waiting for the snow to get a chance to go snowboarding.Snowboarding is the cross between surfing and skateboarding. Snowboarding use to be known as a child’s story, but now has evolved into a great sport. Since it was first invented, it has changed from a child’s sport to a new competitive sport that is great for both men and women. Some people saw snowboarding as an alternative to skateboarding, skiing, and surfing. Pe ople who could not afford to buy surfboards, like Jake Burton, used snowboarding as an alternative. Skateboarders saw snowboarding as a new sport that they could make their mark on.Nobody knows who truly invented the first snowboard. But in 1929, M. J. â€Å"Jack† Burchett invented one of the first snowboards. He used clothesline and horse reins to secure a piece of plywood to his feet. Thirty years later, Sherman Poppen, a chemical gases engineer invented â€Å"The Snurfer† as a toy for his daughter. He made the â€Å"snurfer† by bounding two skis together and putting a rope at the nose, so that the rider could hold it and keep it stable. Poppen licensed his idea to manufacturer when his daughter’s friends wanted a â€Å"snurfer† too.In 1966, â€Å"the snurfer† sold over a half million times. In 1979, Poppen left the snowboarding business after Jake Burton came up with the bindings and went back to his old profession. Jake Burton, another i nventor of the snowboard, became interested in snowboarding after taking part in Poppen’s â€Å"snurfer† competitions that were organized by Poppen. His parents wouldn’t buy him a surfboard so riding the â€Å"snurfer† was a new and cool thing to do. In 1977, after he finished college, Burton moved to Londonderry, Vermont to make different types of the Snurfer.He made his first board out of laminated hardwood. In 1979, while at a Snurfer competition, Burton shocked everyone by using his new board that had the first binding. It made a big difference that allowed him to control the board and made it easier to beat the other riders. In 1969, Dimitrije Milovich, after he got the idea from sliding down a hill on a cafeteria plate in college, started making snowboards. His snowboards were based on surfboards combined with the way skis work. In 1972, he started a new company called â€Å"Winterstick†.He produced lots of snowboards and even got articles in magazines like, â€Å"News Week†, â€Å"Playboy†, and â€Å"Power†. In 1980, he left the snowboarding business, but was still known as a very important pioneer of the sport. At the same time that Jake Burton was producing his snowboards Tom Sims produced his first snowboards in 1977. Sims was an avid skateboarder who made a â€Å"snowboard† in a junior high school shop class. He made his out of carpet wood and aluminum. He glued some carpet to the top of a piece of wood and put an aluminum sheet on the bottom.He started making snowboards in 1977 in his garage with his friend and employee Chuck Barfoot. Barfoot actually made the boards and came up with the â€Å"Flying Yellow Banana†. It was a skateboard deck on top of a plastic shell with skegs. During 1980 Sims signed a skate-snowboarding deal with a big company called Vision Sports. Signing the deal helped Sims get out of his financial problems, but his friend Barfoot, was left out and tried to go into business for himself. He couldn’t compete with big competitors like Sims and Burton.The first modern competitive snowboarding contest took place in Leadville, Colorado in 1981. Then snowboarding competition took off from there and became worldwide. In 1982, the first national snowboarding race was held in Suicide Six, outside of Woodstock, Vermont. Because of the conditions of the hill, the goal of the race appeared to be mostly just surviving the race. The race was on a steep icy downhill run called â€Å"The Face†. Paul Graves put it on and Tom Simms and Jake Burton competed. Doug Bouton won first place overall.This race marked the last time that snowboards and snurfer’s raced together. In 1983, Jake Burton puts on the national snowboarding championships in Snow Valley. A couple of months later Tom Sims holds the inaugural World Snowboarding Championships at Soda Springs Ski Bowl in Lake Tahoe. That contest featured the first contest with a half pipe. In 1986 the World Snowboarding Championships moved from Soda Springs to Colorado. In 1986, a new European snowboarding generation launched. Then the Europeans began to organize their own regional events like the Swiss Championships in St. Moritz. In 1987, a group of riders and manufacturers formed the N. A. S. B. A. (National Association of State Boards of Accountancy) whose main goal was to create a unified World Cup tour with the Europeans. In 1988 N. A. S. B. A. got its wish and the first world cup was held in both Europe and the United States. It was the most expensive snowboarding contest ever. In 1994 everybody was happy because snowboarding was declared a Winter Olympic sport. It was finally accepted as a real competitive sport and was first seen in the 1998 Olympics in Nagano, Japan.

Free Essays on The Sky Is Gray

â€Å"The Sky Is Gray† Deals With Racism and Offers a Courageous Solution That Challenges The Rules of Society. In a society that is divided by the polarities of black and white, all citizens must abide by the strict rules of separation. However, there are some, and usually only a few, who realize that this ominous society in which they live must not dictate such terms. Eight-year-old James from rural Louisiana travels with his mother to a white-dominated town, in order to visit the dentist: James narrates Ernest Gaines’ story â€Å"The Sky Is Gray.† The author proposes that those refusing to accept society’s rules on race relations may provide part of a solution to eradicate prejudices. He is able to accomplish this with a young black man who uses education and reasoning as support, and through an elderly couple who exercise compassion in the story. The young college man demands radical change in race relations when he suggests that educating oneself in a white-dominated society is part of the solution. The nameless young man quickly becomes alienated in the small waiting room of the dental office, when he confronts the black community’s status in society by asserting that, â€Å"We don’t question is exactly our problem.† He advocates to â€Å"Question everything. Every stripe, every star, every word spoken. Everything,† as he does not trust the symbols or the ideology of democracy. The young man stirs many emotions among his own people in the crowded room with his way of thinking, especially that of an outraged preacher and a baffled but amused elderly lady, when he challenges the very existence that they have learned to live within. While the reader is unsure whether the young man’s logic has been widely heard outside the dentist office, he/she can confidently presume that in time it will be, as the determined young man pursues a college education which will enable him â€Å"to read and to ask questions.† It quickly b... Free Essays on The Sky Is Gray Free Essays on The Sky Is Gray â€Å"The Sky Is Gray† Deals With Racism and Offers a Courageous Solution That Challenges The Rules of Society. In a society that is divided by the polarities of black and white, all citizens must abide by the strict rules of separation. However, there are some, and usually only a few, who realize that this ominous society in which they live must not dictate such terms. Eight-year-old James from rural Louisiana travels with his mother to a white-dominated town, in order to visit the dentist: James narrates Ernest Gaines’ story â€Å"The Sky Is Gray.† The author proposes that those refusing to accept society’s rules on race relations may provide part of a solution to eradicate prejudices. He is able to accomplish this with a young black man who uses education and reasoning as support, and through an elderly couple who exercise compassion in the story. The young college man demands radical change in race relations when he suggests that educating oneself in a white-dominated society is part of the solution. The nameless young man quickly becomes alienated in the small waiting room of the dental office, when he confronts the black community’s status in society by asserting that, â€Å"We don’t question is exactly our problem.† He advocates to â€Å"Question everything. Every stripe, every star, every word spoken. Everything,† as he does not trust the symbols or the ideology of democracy. The young man stirs many emotions among his own people in the crowded room with his way of thinking, especially that of an outraged preacher and a baffled but amused elderly lady, when he challenges the very existence that they have learned to live within. While the reader is unsure whether the young man’s logic has been widely heard outside the dentist office, he/she can confidently presume that in time it will be, as the determined young man pursues a college education which will enable him â€Å"to read and to ask questions.† It quickly b...

The Importance of Jade in Precolumbian America

The Importance of Jade in Precolumbian America Jade occurs naturally in very few places in the world, although the term jade has been often used to describe a variety of minerals used since ancient times to produce luxury items in many different regions of the world, such as China, Korea, Japan, New Zealand, Neolithic Europe, and Mesoamerica. The term jade should be properly applied to only two minerals: nephrite and jadeite. Nephrite is a calcium and magnesium silicate  and can be found in a variety of colors, from translucent white, to yellow, and all shades of green. Nephrite doesn’t occur naturally in Mesoamerica. Jadeite, a sodium and aluminum silicate, is a hard and highly translucent stone whose color ranges from blue-green to apple green. Sources of Jade in Mesoamerica The only source of jadeite known so far in Mesoamerica is the Motagua River valley in Guatemala. Mesoamericanists debate over whether the Motagua river was the only source  or ancient peoples of Mesoamerica used multiple sources of the precious stone. Possible sources under study are the Rio Balsas basin in Mexico  and the Santa Elena region in Costa Rica. Pre-Columbian archaeologists working on jade, distinguish between â€Å"geological† and â€Å"social† jade. The first term indicates the actual jadeite, whereas â€Å"social† jade indicates other, similar greenstones, such as quartz and serpentine which were not as rare as jadeite but were similar in color and therefore fulfilled the same social function. Cultural Importance of Jade Jade was especially appreciated by Mesoamerican and Lower Central American people because of its green color. This stone was associated with water, and vegetation, especially young, maturing corn. For this reason, it was also related to life and death. Olmec, Maya, Aztec and Costa Rican elites particularly appreciated jade carvings and artifacts and commissioned elegant pieces from skillful artisans. Jade was traded and exchanged among elite members as a luxury item all over the pre-Hispanic American world. It was replaced by gold very late in time in Mesoamerica, and around 500 AD in Costa Rica and Lower Central America. In these locations, frequent contacts with South America made gold more easily available. Jade artifacts are often found in elite burial contexts, as personal adornments or accompanying objects. Sometimes a jade bead was placed within the mouth of the deceased. Jade objects are also found in dedicatory offerings for the construction or ritual termination of public buildings, as well as in more private residential contexts. Ancient Jade Artifacts In the Formative period, the Olmec of the Gulf Coast were among the first Mesoamerican people to shape jade into votive celts, axes, and bloodletting tools around 1200-1000 BC. The Maya achieved master levels of jade carving. Maya artisans used drawing cords, harder minerals, and water as abrasive tools to work the stone. Holes were made in jade objects with bone and wood drills, and finer incisions were often added at the end. Jade objects varied in size and shapes and included necklaces, pendants, pectorals, ear ornaments, beads, mosaic masks, vessels, rings, and statues. Among the most famous jade artifacts from the Maya region, we can include funeral masks and vessels from Tikal, and Pakal’s funeral mask and jewels from the Temple of the Inscriptions at Palenque. Other burial offerings and dedication caches have been found at major Maya sites, such as Copan, Cerros, and Calakmul. During the Postclassic period, the use of jade dropped dramatically in the Maya area. Jade carvings are rare, with the notable exception of the pieces dredged out of the Sacred Cenote at Chichà ©n Itz. Among Aztec nobility, jade jewelry was the most valuable luxury: partly because of its rarity, since it had to be imported from the tropical lowlands, and partly because of its symbolism linked to water, fertility, ​and preciousness. For this reason, jade was one of the most valuable tribute item collected by the Aztec Triple Alliance. Jade in Southeastern Mesoamerica and Lower Central America Southeastern Mesoamerica and Lower Central America were other important regions of the distribution of jade artifacts. In the Costa Rican regions of Guanacaste-Nicoya jade artifacts were mainly widespread between AD 200 and 600. Although no local source of jadeite has been identified so far, Costa Rica and Honduras developed their own jade-working tradition. In Honduras, non-Maya areas show a preference for using jade in building dedication offerings more than burials. In Costa Rica, by contrast, the majority of jade artifacts have been recovered from burials. The use of jade in Costa Rica seems to come to an end around A.D. 500-600  when there was a shift towards gold as the luxury raw material; that technology originated in Colombia and Panama. Jade Study Problems Unfortunately, jade artifacts are hard to date, even if found in relatively clear chronological contexts, since this particularly precious and hard-to-find material was often passed down from one generation to another as heirlooms. Finally, because of their value, jade objects are often looted from archaeological sites and sold to private collectors. For this reason, a huge number of published items are from unknown provenience, missing, therefore, an important piece of information. Sources Lange, Frederick W., 1993, Precolumbian Jade: New Geological and Cultural Interpretations. University of Utah Press. Seitz, R., G.E. Harlow, V.B. Sisson, and K.A. Taube, 2001, Olmec Blue and Formative Jade Sources: New Discoveries in Guatemala, Antiquity, 75: 687-688

How is the Enlightenment connected to the Scientific Revolution Essay

How is the Enlightenment connected to the Scientific Revolution - Essay Example People thought the globe was the midpoint of the cosmos (Bacon 1960). That meant that the moon, planets, and the sun revolved around the earth. Europeans used ideas based on the physical world while Romans and Greeks believed in the Bible. However, attitudes changed in the mid 1500. A spirit of curiosity gave rise to a scientific revolution (Burns 2003). Scholars were willing to question old ideas and the level of focus was improved with much observation. Europeans were leading in the exploration leading to discovery of new lands and the establishment of universities. Francis Bacon, an English writer, assisted in fostering this approach. He urged scientists to base their opinions on what they could see in the world (Bacon 1960). R. Descartes used mathematics and logic to exert his immense influence. In the mid 1600, Isaac Newton established the law of gravity. He used mathematics to show the law of gravity controlled the motion of the planets and objects on earth (Burns 2003). Paris became the European cultural center in 1700 (Oslar 2000) where people from the entire Europe gathered to new ideas about enlightenment. Marie Therese became popular for hosting and funding ideas on enlightenment. According to the letters by Isaac Newton, religion and uniqueness were necessary for innovation. In the letters, Newton said that the discovery came as a result of patient thought. The letters contained significant propositions but were imperfect in some parts. According to Isaac Newton, no matter how matter was scattered, it would be infinitely attracted towards the center (Hankins 1985). This meant that at the center there would have a particle that is attracted to all other particles at equal measure (Goodman 1973). This became known as a state of perfect equilibrium. According to the observations of the great instauration by Francis Bacon, human intellect is responsible for its own challenges and difficulties (Oslar 2000). Therefore, man should use the help at his dispo sal to address the difficulties that he faces. This exposed the levels of ignorance and the damage it causes to the quality of life. He argued that through human efforts and determination life can be restored to the perfect condition or reduced to better condition that it is now (Burns 2003). Mathematics and philosophy grew so rapidly that the two had to be separated (Sax 2001). The impact is still being felt today. Scientist came to know that observing and explaining would help them in discovering the natural laws. The scientific method became increasingly prominent (Portar 2001). The discovering had an impact on education in all levels. As more people trained in science and physics, technology advanced and new technologies were discovered. Enlightenment had unprecedented impact in the quality of life (Goodman 1973). Complicated farm machinery and textile industry were discovered causing scientific and the industrial revolution (Sax 2001). Scientific revolution sought a break from a religious and theological approach to life (Hankins 1985). In medieval times, society was largely governed by church views and traditions which discouraged open-mindedness (Oslar 2000). Enlightenment was a movement that challenged people to think and make independent decisions. Newton, Descartes and Priestly played a significant role in the discovery of sextants slide rule and

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR DECISION MAKING Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR DECISION MAKING - Essay Example Long-range forecast involve timeframes of over three years involving capital expenditures, R&D, new product planning and expansion (Heizer & Render). There are two different approaches of forecasting. The first approach is subjective or qualitative where factor’s such as the manager’s intuition, experience, emotions and opinion are utilized in reaching a forecast. The second quantitative approach involves the use of some historical data coupled with the use of some mathematical models in order to predict possible future outcomes. The qualitative approach is often useful in estimating sales for certain new consumer products or services that rely heavily on customer needs and preferences. Under the qualitative approach to forecasting there are four different types of methods used (Heizer, et. al.): Jury of executive Opinion- the opinion of a group of high level managers or decision makers is used in combination with some statistical models to arrive at a conclusion Sales Force composite- the individual salesperson sales forecasts are all combined and reviewed for accuracy in order to determine an overall forecast. Delphi Method- in these approach there are three types of participants: staff personnel, respondents and decision makers. The decision makers typically consist of a panel of 5 to 10 experts who will be making the actual forecasts.